Psychology & Sociology
In operant conditioning, a voluntary reponse is repeatedly paired with a consequence to increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior, also known as the target response. Consequences can be either punishments, which decrease the target response, or reinforcements, which increase the target response. There are two categories of reinforcers: primary reinforcers, which fulfill a biological need and are innately desired, and secondary reinforcers, which are not innately desired and require learning of their value.
Consequences can be categorized as either "positive" or "negative." A positive consequence is something that's added to increase or decrease a target response, while a negative consequence does so by removing something. In operant conditioning, reinforcing schedules describe the timing of when consequences are provided. Different types of reinforcement schedules include continuous reinforcement (rewarding a target response every time it occurs), partial reinforcement (rewarding a target response only sometimes), interval-based schedules (rewards given after certain amounts of time performing the target response), and ratio-based schedules (rewards given after a certain number of target responses). Other concepts in operant conditioning include shaping (a process that breaks down complex target responses into simpler steps and reinforcing each step), avoidance learning (conditioning to avoid an unpleasant stimulus), escape learning (conditioning to remove an unpleasant stimulus), and instinctual drift (when conditioned responses are replaced by instinctive behaviors).
Lesson Outline
<ul> <li>Introduction to operant conditioning <ul> <li>Overview of operant conditioning</li> <li>Voluntary target responses paired with consequences</li> <li>Difference between operant and classical conditioning</li> </ul> </li> <li>Consequences in operant conditioning <ul> <li>Punishments and reinforcements definition</li> <li>Categories of reinforcements</li> <li>Primary reinforcers</li> <li>Secondary reinforcers</li> <li>Token economy</li> <li>Discriminating stimulus</li> </ul> </li> <li>Positive and negative consequences <ul> <li>Positive consequences definition and examples</li> <li>Positive reinforcement and positive punishment</li> <li>Negative consequences definition and examples</li> <li>Negative reinforcement and negative punishment</li> </ul> </li> <li>Reinforcement schedules <ul> <li>Continuous reinforcement</li> <li>Partial reinforcement</li> <li>Interval-based schedules <ul> <li>Fixed-interval schedules</li> <li>Variable-interval schedules</li> </ul> </li> <li>Ratio-based schedules <ul> <li>Fixed-ratio schedules</li> <li>Variable-ratio schedules</li> </ul> </li> <li>Effectiveness of different schedules</li> </ul> </li> <li>Shaping <ul> <li>Definition and process of shaping</li> <li>Breaking down complex target response into steps</li> <li>Successive reinforcement of steps</li> </ul> </li> <li>Avoidance and escape learning <ul> <li>Definition of avoidance learning</li> <li>Definition of escape learning</li> <li>Difference between avoidance and escape learning</li> </ul> </li> <li>Instinctual drift <ul> <li>Definition and concept of instinctual drift</li> <li>Replacement of conditioned response with innate behaviors</li> </ul> </li> </ul>
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FAQs
Primary reinforcers are stimuli that satisfy a basic biological need, such as food, water, or shelter. These reinforcers are inherently rewarding. Secondary reinforcers, on the other hand, are not inherently rewarding but become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers. Examples of secondary reinforcers include money, grades, or social praise.
A token economy system is a form of reinforcement in which desired behaviors are reinforced in the form of "tokens" that can then be exchanged for something that is valued.
A discriminating stimulus is a cue or signal that indicates the availability of reinforcement for a specific target response. It helps the subject to distinguish between situations when reinforcement is available for the desired behavior and situations when reinforcement will not be provided. The presence of the discriminating stimulus increases the likelihood of the target response occurring due to the expectation of reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something following a target response, which increases the likelihood of that desired behavior being repeated. Examples include praise, rewards, or treats. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, involves the removal of something, resulting in an increase in the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Examples include removing an annoying sound to increase the target response.
Reinforcement schedules refer to the timing or pattern in which reinforcements are delivered following desired behaviors. There are two main types of schedules: continuous and partial (intermittent). Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing the target response every time it occurs, while partial (intermittent) reinforcement occurs only some of the time. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedules can be further classified into fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules. Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid acquisition of the target response but may also result in faster extinction if reinforcement is discontinued. Intermittent reinforcement, especially variable schedules, can create more resistant and persistent behaviors, taking longer to extinguish if reinforcement is discontinued.
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